Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation. Complications. Although she did not experience any dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy as a result of sleep testing. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). Reduced urine. Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. His children and his wifes parents all agreed that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife and they couldnt think of a reason that would provide any sort of motive to murder her (Cartwright, 2004). Heroin can be snorted, smoked, or injected intravenously. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Diarrhea. It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls. As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse consequences. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. Research indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. Here are some tips to maintain healthy sleep: Aparasomniais one of a group of sleep disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep play a role. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgards research into hypnosis and pain. Natural opioids, calledopiates, are derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in the poppy plant. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs. It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. It may feel like alcohol helps you sleep, but it actually disrupts REM sleep and leads to frequent awakenings. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? Abnormal Motor Behavior. C) the severity and duration of the problem. This hypnogram illustrates how an individual moves through the various stages of sleep. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. Is it absolutely essential that we sleep? The smokable form reaches the brain very quickly to produce an intense euphoria that dissipates almost as fast as it arrives, prompting users to continuing taking the drug. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential to restore resources that are expended during the day. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. As we grow older, we sleep less. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. The treatment of insomnia likely would include stress management techniques and changes in problematic behaviors that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed). Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Insleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to driving an automobile. Ebola virus disease (EVD), formerly known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever, is a rare but severe, often fatal illness in humans. Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat both anxiety and insomnia. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. For example, she and her colleagues published a study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over a five-month period to report the degree to which their former spouses were on their minds. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. Obviously, regular narcoleptic episodes could interfere with the ability to perform ones job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment). Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. 1. This section will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive drugs and problems associated with such use. Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. a - a mole that looks cancerous. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. Getting the optimal amount of sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits. For example, most people sleep during the night and are awake during the day. Five cardinal signs characterize this response: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles (Figure 4.9). Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). This can lead to people compulsively using stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines, in part to try to reestablish the persons physical and psychological pre-use baseline. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. that would be one of the problems that Ive encountered. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. 2. Causes. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges, 2007). Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. The Safe to Sleep campaign educates the public about how to minimize risk factors associated with SIDS. In the brain, the hypothalamus, which lies above the pituitary gland, is a main center of homeostasis. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. It is typically consumed in pill form. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Humans have an endogenous opioid neurotransmitter systemthe body makes small quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing pain and producing euphoria. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. Given the average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25 years of our lives sleeping. These sleep episodes are often associated withcataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Once she was able to limit her use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical health gradually improved. c. The prevalence rates for somatic disorders are often difficult to determine; however, overall estimates of somatic symptom disorder are around 4-6%. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of psychoactive drugs known as depressants (Figure 4.15). In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. When we do this, we often experience jet lag. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. The hypnogram below (Figure 4.12) shows a persons passage through the stages of sleep. Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. While amphetamines are often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Try going to bed and waking up at the same time every day to keep your biological clock in sync so your body gets in the habit of sleeping every night. Infants younger than 12 months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a greater risk than girls. Sleepis a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. . (credit: modification of work by Mikael Hggstrm). (b) People practicing meditation may experience an alternate state of consciousness. Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012), and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013). Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Awareness of external stimuli includes experiences such as seeing the light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice of a friend. As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown inFigure 4.11, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. Add a comment. (credit: Laurie Avocado). Individuals with insomnia often experience long delays between the times that they go to bed and actually fall asleep. d. both b and c. 2. 3. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. The heart rate slows . This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. Methadone clinicshelp people who previously struggled with opioid addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormonemelatonin. the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . Drugs in this category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine. Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? Some sleep-deprived individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (for example sitting and watching television or driving a car). Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below (Broughton et al., 1994; Cartwright, 2004; Mahowald, Schenck, & Cramer Bornemann, 2005; Pressman, 2007). Two of them I didnt even know I was involved in until afterwards (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). You have read that the pineal gland releases melatonin during sleep (Figure 4.6). Guilleminault et al. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. These behaviors vary widely, but they can include kicking, punching, scratching, yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or attacked. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. Has something like this ever happened to you? You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. Thirst. Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal settings. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. Bloating or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen. Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available over-the-counter in some other countries. Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. (b) Heroin is cooked on a spoon over a candle. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Treatment. Indeed, we know sleep deprivation results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012), leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make decisions, and recall long-term memories. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. Loss of appetite. For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. A) managed care Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature.